By April or May 1896, the existence of the Katipunan was already known to the Guardia Civil Veterana. In August, the confession of Teodoro Patiño’s sister to Fray Mariano Gil, the Augustinian curate of Tondo, merely confirmed what the government already knew. The priest persuaded the authorities of the grave danger the society posed to the Spanish community. Reacting to the ensuring hysteria and acting on information collated over a long period of time, the government had numerous prominent residents arrested and detained; houses were raided and searched. Governor-General Ramon Blanco was urged to apply the “juez de cuchillo” or total annihilation of the Filipino population in a prescribed zone within the areas of uprising.
There was no holding back the revolution.
A nation is born
The Spanish historian Manuel Sastron describes the revolution as a “rebellion of the tagalogs against Spanish domination”; he also refers to “the tagalog insurrection” and “the tagalog rebels.” But it is clear that the 1896 revolution was a national endeavor.
Written and published in 1896, the Ktipunan’s Cartilla defined its major objectives:
(The objective pursued by this association is noble and worthy; to unite the inner being and thoughts of the tagalogs* through a binding pledge, so that through this unity they may gain the strength to destroy the dense shroud that benights the mind and to discover the Path of Reason and Enlightenment. *The word tagalog means all those born in this archipelage; therefore, though visayan, ilocano, pampango, etc. they are all tagalogs.)
The term “Tagalog” defined all persons born in the archipelago, whether Bisayan, Ilocano, Pampango, etc. Therefore the Tagalog nation or Katagalugan consisted not only of Tagalog speakers but included all those who grew up (tumubo) in the Philippines, regardless of ethnolinguistic classification and ancestry. At the time, the term “Filipino” applied solely to Spaniards born in the archipelago. Bonifacio and Jacinto made “Tagalog” a term applicable to all indios or natives.
In his unpublished memoir, “Paghihimagsik Nang 1896-1897″ (The Revolution of 1896-1897), Caviteño revolutionary and Aguinaldo’s secretary Carlos V. Ronquillo explains the concept further (This is what the readers must understand: by what we refer to as tagalog, a term which may be found on this page of this account, we do not mean, as some believe, those who were born in Manila, Cavite and Bulacan, etc. No, we wish to refer to the Philippines…. because, in our opinion, this term should apply to all the children of the Filipino nation. Tagalog, or stated more clearly, the name “tagalog” has no other meaning but “taga-ilog” [from the river] which, traced directly to its root, refers to those who prefer to settle along rivers, truly a trait, it cannot be denied, of all those born in the Philippines, in whatever island or town.)
In his patriotic writings, Bonifacio expressed his concept of nationhood, In K.K.K Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Z.LI.B., Pagibig sa Tinubuang Bayan, Hibik ng Filipinas sa Ynang España and Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog, he referred to the Philippine islands as sangkapuluan or Katagalugan. In a revolutionary leaflet printed in Cavite during the first quarter of 1897, Bonifacio wrote: “Mabuhay ang haring Bayang Katagalugan.”
It was clear to Bonifacio and the members of the Katipunan that theirs was a national struggle.
First Filipino government
From 24 August 1896, the Katipunan became an open de facto government. the society had been organized as a secret organization with its own laws, bureaucratic structure and an elective leadership. But a working government was imperative once the August 1896 revolution had begun.
Bonifacio, when questioned at Tejeros, Cavite, defined the letter “K” in the flag to mean “Kalayaan” or freedom and explained:
(…that from the Highest Officials of the Katipunan to the lowest members, all are one in their respect for brotherhood and equality; they risk blood and life in the struggle against the King, in order to institute our own free Government, so that, in short, the People, and not only one or two people, shall govern the Country.)
Jacinto Lumbreras stated:
(The Archipelago is governed by the K.K.K. ng mga Anak ng Bayan, which initiated the Revolution; with Laws and Regulations which it enforces; followed and respected by all for defending Freedom, fraternal love, constituting and consolidating the Leadership.)
Santiago Alvarez also said:
(We of the Katipunan… are true Revolutionaries in defending the Freedom of our Nation.)
While Bonifacio, Lumbreras and Alvarez defined the moral, democratic and nationalist bases of that government, some elements were more explicitly republican. One captured official seal, illustrated in the 30 March 1897 issue of the La Ilustracion Española y Americana, bore the term “Republika ng Katagalugan.”
John R.M. Taylor, the American military historian and custodian of the Philippine Insurgent Records, concluded that Bonifacio established the first Filipino national government. Taylor interpreted the documents he saw as follows:
The katipunan came out from the cover of secret designs, threw off the clock of any other purpose, and stood openly for the independence of the Philippines. Bonifacio turned his lodges into batallions, his grandmasters into captains, and the supreme council of the Katipunan into insurgent government of the Philippines.
Gregorio F. Zaide, who wrote a history of the Katipunan acknowledged Bonifacio’s revolutionary government:
The Katipunan was more than a secret revolutionary society; it was, withal, a government. It was the intention of Bonifacio to have the Katipunan govern the whole Philippines after the overthrow of Spanish rule.
Even Teodoro Agoncillo had to concede that:
Immediately before the outbreak of the revolution, therefore, Bonifacio organized the Katipunan into a government revolving around a ‘cabinet’ composed of men of his confidence.
First President
A far clearer idea of Bonifacio’s Katagalugan government emerged in the late 1980′s, when letters and other important documents signed by Bonifacio—part of the collection of noted historian and former director of the prewar Philippine Library and Museum, Epifanio de los Santos—became accessible.
Three letters and one appointment paper, written by Bonifacio on printed letterheads dated 8 March to 24 April 1897, and all addressed to Emilio Jacinto, prove that Bonifacio was the first president of a national government. These letters contained the following titles and designations:
Pangulo ng Kataastaasang Kapulungan (President of the Supreme Council)
Ang Kataastaasang Pangulo (The Supreme President)
Pangulo nang Haring Bayang Katagalugan (President of the Sovereign Nation of Katagalugan)
Note: “Bayan” means both “people” and “country”
Ang Pangulo ng Haring Bayan May tayo nang K.K. Katipunan nang mga Anak ng Bayan, Unang nag galaw ang Panghihimagsik (The President of the Sovereign Nation Founder of the Katipunan, Initiator of the Revolution)
Kataastaasang Panguluhan, Pamahalaang Panghihimagsik (Office of the Supreme President, Government of the Revolution)
The prewar scholar Jose P. Bantug referred to Bonifacio as the “Kataastaasang Pangulo” and “General No.1 “Jose P. Santos in 1933, and Zaide in 1939, came to the same conclusion and recognized the Bonifacio presidency.
However, both men misread the phrase Ang Haring Bayan—found in the Minutes of the Tejeros Assembly (23 March 1897), the Jacinto Appointment Paper (15 April 1897), as well as the undated Bonifacio Manifesto entitled Katipunan Mararahas ng mga Anak ng Bayan—as Ang Hari ng Bayan. The first phrase refers to Bonifacio’s adaptation of the Western concept of republic—from res publica, literally public thing or common weal—to the Filipino concept of “sovereign people”
Thus, the government headed by Bonifacio prior to 22 March 1897 was democratic in nature and national in scope, contrary to some postwar historians’ contention that Bonifacio attempted to establish a government separate from Aguinaldo’s only after the Tejeros Assembly, and was therefore guilty of treason.
An article on the Philippine revolution appeared in the 8 February 1897 issue of the La Ilustracion Española y Americana. It was accompanied by an engraved portrait of Bonifacio wearing a black suit and white tie, with the caption “Andres Bonifacio, Titulado ‘Presidente’ de la Republica Tagala” and described him as the head of the native government. The reporter, G. Reparaz, referred to Aguinaldo only as a generalissimo. The key officers in the Bonifacio government, according to Reparaz, were as follows: Teodoro Plata, Secretary of War; Emilio Jacinto, Secretary of State; Aguedo del Rosario, Secretary of Interior; Briccio Pantas, Secretary of Justice; and Enrique Pacheco as Secretary of Finance.
In his 1897 work, El Katipunan o el Filibusterismo en Filipinas, the Spanish historian Jose M. del Castillo reiterated the results of what was, in effect, the first Philippine national elections and listed the same names as La Ilustracion.
The August 1896 transformation of the Katipunan into a revolutionary government and Bonifacio’s election to the presidency were confirmed by Pio Valenzuela in his testimony before Spanish authorities. Del Rosario, who was captured, was described as “one of those designated by the Katipunan to form the Revolutionary Government of the Philippines and to carry out the function of local government administration.”
Katipunan Democracy
Bonifacio set in place mechanisms for popular participation from the national to the local levels. The government established by the Katipunan was run by consensus.
The Supreme Council was called the Kataastaasang Kapulungan as can be noted from the letterhead and seal used by Bonifacio. Baldomero Aguinaldo, Pangulo (President) ofSangunian Bayan Magdalo (Magdalo Council), in a letter dated 21 March 1897 and addressed to Felix Cuenca and Mariano Noriel refers to a memorandum from Bonifacio as “isang Kalatas ng G. Presidente” (a message from Mr. President) and recognizes the national government led by Bonifacio as “Kgg na pulungan ng hihimacsic (Gobierno revolucionario)”(Honorable revolutionary council [Revolutionary government]).
In each province, the Kataastaasang Sangunian coordinated the Sangunian Bayan, which saw to public administration and military affairs on the supra-municipal or quasi-provincial level. In the province of Manila, there were many Sangunian Bayan, such as in Tondo, Kalookan, Mandaluyong, San Juan del Monte, Marikina, Pasig, and Pateros, San Mateo, etc. There were Sangunian Bayan in the provinces of Batangas, Bulacan, Laguna, Nueva Ecija and Tayabas, etc. There were at least three Sangunian Bayan in Cavite: Magdiwang in Noveleta, Magdalo in Kawit, and Mapagtiis in San Francisco de Malabon.
Once the revolution was underway, it was necessary to merge several Sangunian Bayan under unified military commands to facilitate strategic planning and tactical moves.
At the founding assembly in Kalookan on 24 August 1896, the revolutionary government made the following decisions: 1) the revolution would begin with the attack on Manila at midnight of Saturday, 29 August; 2) a revolutionary army was established with the appointment of Aguedo del Rosario, Vicente Fernandez, Ramon Bernardo and Gregorio Coronel as brigadiers general; 3) the four generals were tasked with strategic planning for the occupation of Manila; 4) the military situation was to be constantly appraised so that an uprising could be started earlier than 29 August; and 5) assigned routes for three commanders were laid out through Tondo, San Marcelino and the Sampaloc rotonda (now part of Sta. Mesa).
The revolutionary troops were more enthusiastic than effective, however, and the Katipunan was unable to wrest state power from the well-entrenched Spanish forces.
Later, Bonifacio and more than ten generals commanded a rebel army assembled by the Sangunian Bayan of various towns within and around present Metro Manila. They engaged mostly in attack-and-withdraw operations: they seized town halls, captured food, arms and ammunition supplies, and neutralized enemy outposts.
The rebel forces were divided into north and south sectors by the Pasig River. To the north lay Bonifacio’s guerilla forces in Manila and the suburbs, with fortified camps in Balara, San Mateo, Pantayanin and Montalban; the armed Katipunan groups in Bulacan and Mariano Llanera’s forces based in Nueva Ecija were constantly on the move through the Sierra Madre. To the south were the rebel forces of Cavite, under the patron (landed gentry and rural elite) leaders. Governor Ramon Blanco reported to the Spanish Cortes that reinforcement were necessary to destroy both sectors and end the insurrection.
The Cavite rebel groups evolved into two supra-municipal governments with military commands. One was called Magdiwang, covering the territory from Noveleta and San Francisco de Malabon up to Batangas. The other was called Magdalo, which extended its sphere of influence from Kawit, Cavite, to the southern parts of the province of Manila, now Rizal. It soon became apparent that in order to hold on to captured territory, the rebels had to form unified intra-provincial administrative units. The perimeter was then secured with forts and trenches.
The Katipunan army in Cavite was big, but it has been estimated that the army north of the Pasig River was much bigger. In other parts of the archipelago, the rebels were organized into squads and commands smaller than those in Central Luzon.
The original Katipunan sub-organizations of Sangunian Bayan on the supra-municipal level, and the Panguluhang Bayan (local council) on the district or barrio level constituted the civilian component of the Katagalugan government. As the government was a revolutionary one, many civilian leaders were concurrently military officials. At the same time, generals and key officers in the revolutionary army exercised power over government structures. Bonifacio, as president, was effectively the commander-in-chief. Aguinaldo was only one of his captains general.
The Spanish military writer Federico de Monteverde gives details of the military organization instituted by Bonifacio. Monteverde fully illustrates the different revolutionary insignias corresponding to each rank, such as colonel, brigadier general, major general, lieutenant general and captain general. Various military insignias are also discussed by Taylor, and described by Generals Alvarez and Artemio Ricarte in their memoirs.
As the revolution progressed, Bonifacio had to formalize the army. In an order dated 16 December 1896, the revolutionary president redefined the hierarchy of the Katipunan military organization. Each batallion unit—called Katipon—was to be composed of 203 men.
As commander-in-chief, Bonifacio supervised the planning of military strategies and the preparation of orders, manifests and decrees, adjudicated offenses against the nation, as well as mediated in political disputes. He directed generals and positioned troops in the fronts. On the basis of command responsibility, all victories and defeats all over th archipelago during his term of office should be attributed to Bonifacio.
The claim by some historians that “Bonifacio lost all his battles” is ridiculous.
Foreign Affairs
Prior to the outbreak of the revolution, some Filipinos based in Hong Kong acted on behalf of the nationalist movement in the Philippines. Led by Doroteo Cortes, the solicited funds from various sources, especially from wealthy businessmen and companies. They sent the donations to Jose Maria Basa, who was also based in Hong Kong and served as disbursing officer.
A large portion of the funds was used to send a commission to Japan to negotiate for political, military and financial aid for the anticipated uprising towards the end of 1896. With Cortes were Isabelo Artacho and Jose A. Ramos, who arranged with Japanese politicians to acquire 100,000 rifles and an unspecified amount of ammunition. The weapons were partly paid for in advance while the balance was to be amortized over a number of years. The commission also petitioned Japan to send a military squadron to aid the revolutionary forces and, after independence was won, to recognize the Filipino state. Investigations by the Spanish authorities revealed, “The plan was that while Andres Bonifacio was busy recruiting people for the general uprising. Doroteo Cortes should carry on the necessary negotiations with Japan..”
Although Japan was not at war in 1896, she looked at her Asian neighbours with keen expansionary eye. However, most Asian countries then were under European colonial dominion. Around the middle of May 1896, the Japanese cruiser Kongo visited Manila. Bonifacio and some Katipunan members immediately sought a meeting with Japanese Admiral Kanimura, while Jacinto drafted a message addressed to the Emperor of Japan. It read: “The Filipino people greet the Emperor of Japan and the entire Japanese nation, with the hope that the light of liberty in Japan will also shed its rays in the Philippines…” Japan was not disposed to go to war against Spain in 1896-1897 just to uphold the rights of Filipinos. Nevertheless, Bonifacio expected the arrival of arms and ammunition from Japan in August 1896.
Cortes continued to represent the revolutionaries before foreign entities. Together with Basa and A.G. Medina, Cortes sent a petition to the consul of the United States of America in Hong Kong on 29 January 1897. The request implored the “Gefe Supremo de su Nacion” for protection of the Filipinos and recognition of their rights to self -government. But the petition was ill-timed. Grover Cleveland lost the presidential elections; his successor, William McKinley, declared a national policy focused on “domestic business conditions and economic recovery from the continuing depression of 1893 and therefore (he tried) to avoid conflict with Spain.”
In January 1897, the Philippine Commission in Hong Kong addressed a petition to Henry Hannateaux, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, which enumerated 50 grievances of the Philippines against Spain and called for assistance. However, France remained strictly neutral because she feared that such anticolonialism would contaminate neighbouring French Indochina, and also because France had no means for practicable intervention.
Significance of 1896 Revolution
In July 1892, Bonifacio Founded the Katipunan, which launched the first anticolonial revolution in Asia in August 1896. He formed the first national government which became the foundation of the governments established by Aguinaldo from 1897 to 1899.
The Katagalugan government carried over the symbols and teachings of the Katipunan, which the people accepted as the revolutionary authority. This government was democratic in principle, orientation and form. At its inception, it was formed by representatives from the provinces where the Katipunan had a mass-based membership. It adopted as its national standard the Katipunan’s red flag with a white sun with the Tagalog letter “Ka” in the center, and commissioned Julio Nakpil to compose the national anthem, “Marangal na Dalit ng Katagalugan.”
In defining “Tagalog” as the term for all Filipinos, and “Katagalugan” as the country’s name in lieu of “Filipinas” which had colonial origins. Bonifacio and the Katipunan sought to define a national identity.
The Katagalugan government commanded the loyalty of a significant portion of the population. It held territory, where it exercised the functions of a state. It had armed forces which fought for, and defended its existence. It had a diplomatic component, which attempted to gain international recognition for the new nation.
The governments that succeeded Bonifacio’s essentially republican Katagalugan government could only proceed from it. The 24 August 1896 government certainly had a larger mass-based following than 24 April 1897 entity that deposed it. But as a result of the power struggle in Cavite, Emilio Aguinaldo, although only one of many revolutionary generals, usurped President Andres Bonifacio’s authority. Aguinaldo reorganized Bonifacio’s Republika ng Katagalugan and renamed it Republica Filipina.
The first Filipino national government was established on 24 August 1896. Filipinos should observe the date as National Day, if the 1896 Philippine Revolution and the Katipunan are to have any worth at all. And Filipinos should recognize Andres Bonifacio not only as the founder of the Katipunan and leader of the revolution of 1896, but as the first Filipino president: the father of the nation and founder of our democracy.
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